a)Expressive role is role usually kept by women which means that their role is to create home comfort and take care after other members of the family.

b) Unpaid domestic labor; emotional support for the whole family

c) Advances in medicine; increased standard of living; end of wars and poverty which was during the last century, economic stability


d) One of the main sociologists of last century Philip Aries argued that childhood started developing only about 300 years ago and in medieval Europe it didn’t exist. However Aries’ main material which he used in his research was paintings by outstanding artists so this source is not very unreliable since we don’t really know whether artists painted the world as it was.
We can say that childhood is socially constructed since there is different behavior to children as writer Pollack noticed. Parents tended to be kind and understanding to their children and there were many examples of violence when parents tried to encourage them to do something or act in a polite way.
In pre industrial societies families were as unit of production and every member did something in order to survive and help his family. As the society was developing, women were becoming out of work as children did and their main responsibility was bringing up children and be a housewife. In 1989 there was the first Children Act which maintained children’s rights and protected them. However in 1975 The Family Law Act had already emphasized children’s rights but not so clearly. Children were under protection of government and in cases of violence or abuse at home they can be taken from their biological parents in order to be safe.
There are laws according to which children cannot buy demerit goods such as alcohol or tobacco before 18 and so this law is aimed to protect young generation and keep it healthier. All these policies are helpful in reducing death rates and increasing standard of living. In the UK there is a law according to which children have to study until 18 and so childhood is considered to be continued till 18 years old, but as O’Donnel noted the length of childhood varies in different countries but usually it is between 18-21 because in this age people are still developing physically and mentally. In most developed countries children get welfare benefits and support in finding jobs after the graduating from university, so this helps them maintain their future life.
Shared Parental Responsibility Act 2006 determines “the best interests of the child” and emphasizes equal time parenting of the child by both parents.
But as Nick Lee said in 21 century childhood is becoming increasingly independent and influenced by media, however they are still dependent on their parents. Media considers childhood as independent and powerful unit of consumption and there are many programs which aimed especially to children in order to attract them with new things or shows. So even if there are many arguments that state that childhood is disappeared (Neil Postman) it is not true because still children will be protected by laws and be independent section of population.


e)Nowadays there are many different ways of constructing the family and as Giddens said this era is era of modernity where everyone chooses his own lifestyle and don’t try to be like others.
First of all, marriage is not the first priority for every women as they are becoming more individualized (Beck &Beck-Gernsheim), their economic position increased; women don’t need necessarily to be dependent on their husbands as they can start their own career which is becoming more and more important for young women. Also social values changed and it is not shame anymore to divorce or be alone as it was before. Both partners don’t expect from each other just taking the part in duties but also spouses demand more support and love, and this can lead to marital breakup (Coontz) and appearing other ways of creating the family.
With changing in priorities expectations of marriage and love change, some need more support, others try to be more independent. That’s why there is a tendency for everyone to choose their own lifestyle. According to the national statistics, households made up with a couple and their dependent children decreased by 15 % from 1961 in 2006, while there was a significant increase in other types of households such as cohabitation, same-sex or single-hood , lone-parents. Of course, still most people want to have good stable relations however as needs increase and now it is easier to divorce, young people choose being alone rather than with unwanted partner; or just they choose cohabitation in order to feel free and change partners when they want. Also more and more people choose same-sex relationships and as evidence shows (Gillian Dunne) they have less arguments, share all the responsibilities and children raised in such families are no different from those who were raised by heterosexual couples (Fitzgerald).
Another point which consider people when maintaining their own life whether they will economically able to support their own family, because they are not usually sure about their future that’s why many people avoid having children and create their own family in elder ages or never.
Also as Anthony Giddens said there is increase in confluent love that is deep emotional intimacy which individuals expect from their partners and if partners fail in giving such love many people choose other types of lifestyle more suitable for them.
However as Somerville argued “these changes are exaggerated” and he in some cases is right because for most people the cereal packet image of the family which includes heterosexual couple with their biological dependent children acts as a powerful ideology and was the ideal image of the family( Gittins 1993). Chester noted in the 1980 Neo-Conventional family where little had changed since 1940 and still more adults marry and have children, most children are reared by their natural parents.